Abstract

Numerous publications provide detailed knowledge of Wild and Semi-Wild Food Plants (WSWFPs) in specific locations in Africa. These studies reveal that WSWFPs are essential components of many Africans diets especially in periods of seasonal food shortage. In this study, researchers present the commonly consumed WSWFPs in Bunyoro-Kitara kingdom of Uganda; their growth forms, collection niches, parts mainly consumed, consumption patterns, main gatherers and the main consumers. A total 385 respondents sampled according to Krejcie and Morgan from two sub-countries (Mutunda and Kiryandongo) of Kibanda country in Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom were administered with semi-structured questionnaires. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were also held to validate questionnaire responses and to characterise the commonly consumed WSWFPs in terms of their growth forms and life cycles. Excel spreadsheet and MINITAB statistical software were used to analyze the questionnaire responses. The outputs of FGDs were subjected to thorough content analysis. A total of 62 WSWFPs were reported as being consumed. The most frequently mentioned were Amaranthus dubius Mart. ex Thell (73.8%), Amaranthus spinosus L (71.4%), Tamarindus indica L (69.1%). Hibiscus sabdariffa L (51.9%) and Vitex doniana Sweet (50.1%). But in terms of botanical family, members of Solanaceae (9.7%) and Fabaceae (9.7%) families were the most commonly consumed followed by Amaranthaceace (8.1%), Malvaceae (8.1%) and Asteraceae (6.5%) families, respectively. Out of the 62 documented WSWFPs, herbs (51.6%) and shrubs (24.2%) constituted the highest the numbers. Trees, vines/climbers and graminoid were few. Fresh leaves and shoots (97.1%) and fruits (74.3%) were predominantly consumed plant parts in the study area. Most WSWFPs were largely consumed as the main sauce and side dishes after cooking, raw as snacks and as condiments (spices or appetizers). Their consumption as wine and porridge component, beverages, raw in salads, potash salts in other foods and as relishes were infrequent. Women (85.7%) and children (75.1%) were the main gatherers. Few men (10.4%) engaged in gathering activities. Majority (75.8%) of the respondents reported that the gathered plants are consumed nearly by entire household members. About 21% said women are the major consumers. Collection niches varied greatly from forests (forest gaps and margins) (77.8%), bushlands (woodlands) (65.7%), cultivated farmlands (63.2%) and grasslands (59.8%). Other niches included homegardens (homesteads), swampy areas (wetlands), abandoned homesteads and farmlands, wastelands, farm borders, roadsides (footpaths) and areas around animal enclosures/cattle corridors. There is a need for more research on the possibility of adapting, growing and intentionally managing the WSWFPs on farms since large proportion of them are still gathered from out-of-farm niches.

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INTRODUCTION

There has been renewed interest towards consumption of Wild and Semi-Wild Food Plants (WSWFPs) (Delang, 2006; Johns and Eyzaguirre, 2006). Despite agricultural societies primary reliance on conventional crop plants, the tradition of eating WSWFPs has not completely disappeared, their nutritional roles and health benefits are being reported in many surveys worldwide (Balemie and Kebebew, 2006; Lockett et al., 2000). The important contribution that these plants can make to poverty reduction through enhancing household food security and incomes has been recognised (Garrity, 2004; Russell and Franzel, 2004).

Wild gathered food plants have been part of human diet since time immemorial and it is argued that past societies made more use of the wild flora to overcome hunger than is done today (King, 1994; Diamond, 2002; Leonti et al., 2006).

Although, currently eradicating extreme poverty and hunger (objective one of the millennium development goal) is the main focus of many international development agenda where wild food resources could help even in biodiversity-rich countries wild food resources still get little attention. Lack of clear examination of the links between poverty and the use of the wild food resources means that policy recommendations are rarely based on hard evidence (Bird and Dickson, 2005).

Numerous publications provide detailed knowledge of edible wild plants in specific locations in Africa (Campbell, 1986; Food Agriculture Organization, 2004; Tabuti et al., 2004; Balemie and Kebebew, 2006; Tabuti, 2007). These studies reveal that wild plants are essential components of many Africans diets especially in periods of seasonal food shortage. A study conducted in Zimbabwe revealed that some poor households rely on wild fruits as an alternative to cultivated food for a quarter of all dry season's meals (Wilson, 1990). Similarly in Northern Nigeria, leafy vegetables and other bush foods are collected as daily supplements to relishes and soups (Loghurst, 1986). In Swaziland, wild plants are still of great importance and contribute a greater share to the annual diet than domesticated crops (Ogle and Grivetti, 1985).

Still many more wild species are believed to be edible and undocumented yet. The contribution that these wild food plants make to many poor peoples livelihoods (Bukenya-Ziraba, 1996; Poulton and Poole, 2001) is however, often not acknowledged in many national statistical reporting. This is a reflection of the general lack of official and scientific interest in these wild resources by policy makers (Leakey and Newton, 1994; Tchiegang-Megueni et al., 2001). Where such national level information is available, it is restricted mainly to a narrow range of exotic food plants such as mango, avocado and citrus that have sufficiently large and often international markets. This study makes the case that in addition to the conventional food plants, more attention should be paid to WSWFPs.

The information presented here about their growth forms, collection niches, parts consumed, consumption patterns, main gatherers and consumers in the Bunyoro-Kitara kingdom of Uganda will therefore, be a major milestone for an authoritative look at these neglected categories of food plants which can contribute to poverty alleviation, food security, agricultural diversification and income generation. It is hoped that these information will increase the understanding of their importance in rural household livelihoods.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data collection: The study was conducted in Mutunda and Kiryandongo sub-countries of Kibanda country in Bunyoro-Kitara kingdom. Data were collected using a combination of methods namely: semi-structured questionnaires, focus group discussions and key informant interviews. A total of 385 households from the two sub-countries (Kiryandongo and Mutunda) were chosen for household survey following the method described by Krejcie and Morgan (1970). About 55 households each from the 3 parishes (Kakwokwo, Diima and Nyamahasa) of Mutunda sub-country and from 4 parishes (Kitwara, Kyankende, Kichwabugingo and Kikube) of Kiryandongo sub-county were then randomly selected. According to Krejcie and Morgan (1970) if one wished to know a representative sample size of a population of 9,000 people then one looks in to the table at level N = 9,000. The sample size in this example is 368. The table which is applicable to any population of a defined (finite) size is based on a Eq:

Where:

X2	=	A constant value of 3.841 (the square of the Z value of 1.96 for 95% confidence level)
N	=	Represents the population size
P	=	The population parameter of 0.5
C	=	A 95% confidence interval (0.05) a probability that the samples represent the population

Using this method, 364 households were chosen for household survey because the documents gathered from sub-counties and county headquarter indicated that Kiryadongo and Mutunda had a total household number of 6788. However, 21 extra households were added to make a total of 385 samples for household survey. Krejcie and Morgan (1970) state that using this calculation as the population increases the sample size increases at a diminishing rate (plateau) and remains eventually constant at slightly >380 cases. There is little to be gained to warrant the expense and energy to sample beyond about 380 cases. Alfred and Settle (1995) provide similar evidence. The selected households were administered with semi-structured questionnaire. Respondents were asked to name the wild food plants they gather, the parts consumed, the habitat in which the wild food plants are gathered, main gatherers, main consumers and the consumption patterns.

Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were held to characterize the commonly consumed WSWFPs in terms of growth form (trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers, graminoids) and life cycle. Key informants were selected among the study community to corroborate household survey data.

Data analysis: Household questionnaire responses were analysed descriptively and inferentially using excel spread sheets and MINITAB statistical package. Mean frequency of citation of the consumption patterns, main consumers, main gatherers, plant parts consumed and the collection niches were computed. A two-tailed test was used to compare the knowledge of WSWFPs between male and female respondents. A box plot was also used to show the variation in number of WSWFPs reported by men and women.

Linear regression analysis was employed to show the relationship between the ages of the respondents and local knowledge of WSWFPs. Key informant interviews were condensed in form of quotes (Binnendijk, 1996). In-depth content analysis were conducted on the data gathered from FGDs.

RESULTS

Commonly consumed WSWFPS in the kingdom: About 62 WSWFPs belonging to 31 botanical families were reported as being consumed (Table 1). The most frequently mentioned were Amaranthus dubius (73.8%), Amaranthus spinosus (71.4%), Tamarindus indica (69.1%), Hibiscus sabdariffa (51.9%), Vitex doniana (50.1%), Solanum nigrum (49.1%), Crotalaria ochroleuca (47.8%), Cleome gynandra (45.2%), Hibiscus acetosella (44.7%), Senna obtusifolia (43.9%), Aframomum angustifolium (43.6%), Vernonia amygdalina (40.3%) and Asystasia gangetica (39.2%). In terms of botanical families, members of Solanaceae family (9.7%), Fabaceae (9.7%), Amaranthaceace (8.1%), Malvaceae (8.1%), Asteraceae (6.5%) and Brassicaceae (4.8%) were the most commonly consumed (Fig. 1).

 

Table 1:	Commonly consumed WSWFPs, parts consumed and consumption pattern in the study area
FPM = Frequency of Plant Mention; YLS = Young (tender) Leaves and Shoots; YL = Young (tender) Leaves Only; S = Shoots only; SD = Seeds; F = Flowers/inflorescence; RF = Ripe Fruits; URF = Unripe Fruit, RZ = Rhizomes; AP = Aerial Parts; TS = Tender Stems; LS = Leaves Stalks; B = Buds; T = Tubers; R = Roots

 

Main parts of WSWFPs consumed and consumption patterns: Main parts of WSWFPs commonly consumed in Bunyoro-Kitara kingdom are shown in Fig. 2. Most people predominantly consumed fresh leaves and shoots (97.1±1.2%) followed by the fruits (74.3±1.1%). Other important plant parts that were reported by respondents as being eaten included leaves with leaf stalks (31.1±4.4%), roots/tubers or rhizomes (25.5±2.1%) and leaves with a few stems (19.3±3.4%). Seeds, leaves with flowers and the whole aerial plant parts though reported eaten were not consumed much.

Fig. 1:	Botanical families of the 62 WSWFPs reported

 

Fig. 2:	Parts of WSWFPs commonly consumed in Bunyoro-Kitara kingdom

 

 

Table 2:	Frequency of citation of WSWFPs consumption patterns in the kingdom

 

WSWFPs were largely consumed as the main sauce after cooking (86.4±2.8%), raw as snacks (79.1±3.9%) and as side dishes after cooking (63.3±3.9%). Other people however, reportedly consumed them as condiments/spices or appetisers, wine and porridge component, juice/beverages, raw in salads, potash salt in other foods and as relishes (Table 2).

Main consumers and gatherers of WSWFPs: The majority (77.0±1.2%) reported that WSWFPs are consumed by all household members (Table 3). Other respondents who differed from those who said that WSWFPs are consumed by the entire household, indicated that women (22.7±1.1%), elderly people (old aged) (15.4±0.6%) and children (13.7±1.2%) were the main consumers as opposed to men (6.6±0.4%). Women (85.7±2.7%) and children (75.1±1.6%) constituted the main gatherers (Table 3).

 

Table 3:	Frequency of mention of the main consumers and gatherers of WSWFPs in the kingdom

 

 

Fig. 3:	Box plots showing the variation in number of WSWFPs mentioned by men and women. Means are indicated by solid squares in the respective boxes

 

Relationship between sex, age and knowledge of WSWFPs: A two-tailed test comparison of the knowledge of WSWFPs between men and womens’ respondents showed a significant variation (T = 8.15, p<0.001). This variation was also apparent from Fig. 3 which shows that the mean number of WSWFPs mentioned by women (16±1.79) was relatively higher that those mentioned by men (14±2.14). Linear regression of the respondents ages with knowledge of WSWFPs (number known per person) was found to be significant (T = 17.04, p<0.001, R² = 0.431) (Table 4). The variation was more apparent when the ages of women (T = 19.39, p<0.001, R² = 0.626) and men (T = 10.63, p<0.001, R² = 0.42) were regressed separately with knowledge of WSWFPs (Fig. 4).

 

Table 4:	Simple linear regressions of the knowledge of WSWFPs with the age of respondents
1The regression equation is: knowledge of WSWFPs (y) = 10.5+0.137 xMen only; 2the regression equation is: knowledge of WSWFPs (y) = 9.56+0.135 m; 3the regression equation is: knowledge of WSWFPs (y) = 10.9+0.146 w

 

 

 

Fig. 4:	Linear regression of sex and age versus knowledge of WSWFPs commonly consumed in Bunyoro-Kitara kingdom

 

 

Besides there was a high positive correlation between the knowledge of WSWFPs and the ages of the women (r = 0.791, p<0.001, n = 227) than in the case for men (r = 0.648, p<0.001, n = 158).

Growth forms and collection niches of the commonly consumed WSWFPs: The growth forms and the collection niches of all WSWFPs reported in this study are shown in Table 5. Overall, out of the 62 documented WSWFPs, herbs (51.6%) and shrubs (24.2%) constituted the highest numbers (Fig. 5). Trees, vines/climbers and graminoid were few. Collection niches varied greatly depending on the species from forest habitats to around animal enclosures (kraals)/cattle corridors. Forested areas which included forest gaps and margins (77.8±6.9%), woodlands (65.7±2.3%), cultivated farmlands (63.2±2.8%) and grasslands (59.8±4.1%), homegardens/homesteads (55.3±1.2%) and wetlands (50.1±1.3%) were the predominant collection sites for most WSWFPs reported (Table 6). Other collection niches included abandoned homesteads and farmlands, wastelands, farm borders, roadsides or along footpaths as well as areas around animal enclosures (kraals)/cattle corridors.

 

Table 5:	Growth forms and collection niches of the commonly consumed WSWFPs in the Bunyoro-Kitara kingdom
Growth forms: SH = Shrub; TR = Tree; VI = Vine; CL = Climber; GR = Graminoid; HB = Herb. Life cycles: A = Annual; p = Perennial; A/P = Annual or short-lived perennial; collection niches: F = Forests/forest gaps/forests margins; WB = Woodlands/Bushlands; G = Grasslands; SW = Swampy areas/wetlands; RF = Roadsides/Footpaths; AE = Around animal Eenclosures (kraals); CC = Cattle Corridors; CF = Cultivated Farmlands; HG = Homegardens/homesteads; AH = Abandoned Homesteads; AF = Abandoned Farmlands; WL = Wastelands; FB = Farm Borders

 

 

Fig. 5:	Growth forms of WSWFPs commonly consumed in the Kingdom expressed as a percentage of 62 WSWFPs reported in the survey

 

 

Table 6:	Frequency of citation of collection niches of the commonly consumed WSWFPs in Bunyoro-Kitara kingdom

 

DISCUSSION

Commonly consumed WSWFPS in the kingdom: A significant number of WSWFPs were documented from the study area. There was large evidence that local communities in this locality very often interact with their environment and make use of these WSWFPs to meet part of their household food requirements.

Anthropologists and nutritionists often argue that contemporary humans are in a genetic sense, still stone agers and therefore, constantly interacting with their environment in quest of meeting their livelihood needs and in most cases still adapted to the pre-agricultural nutritional pattern (Mann, 2004). The number 62 of WSWFPs reportedly consumed in this study is lower than some of those reported from other studies within and outside Uganda. For example, Tabuti et al. (2004) reported 105 edible species distributed in 77 genera and 39 families in Bulamogi country, eastern Uganda and in Rukungiri district of southwestern Uganda, Musinguzi et al. (2006) documented a total of 94 indigenous food plants (most of which were WSWFPs) as being consumed by local people. Elsewhere, Ali-Shtayeh et al. (2008) recorded 100 wild edible plant species distributed across 70 genera and 26 families in Palestine (Northern West Bank). There could be many possible explanations for these differences. However, the most realistic could be related to the higher data collection intensity employed in these other studies. While in the present study the households and key informants were only one-time interviewees, in others they used multiple interviews. Also, the diversity of WSWFPs in the study area could be lower than in areas where most other studies recorded higher number of edible wild plants.

Jr Bennett (1962) and Salick et al. (1999) opined that the diversity of plant resources is often reflected in people’s interrelationship with their environment as expressed in the knowledge and use they make of plants. Hence, environments which are more diverse have more richness and abundance of the most useful species than less diverse environments. The results however, compare closely with those of Balemie and Kebebew (2006) and Rashid et al. (2008) who recorded a total of 66 WSWFPs belonging to 54 genera and 34 families in Derashe and Kucha districts of Southern Ethiopia and a total of 57 WSWFPs belonging to 33 families used by the Gujjar tribe in Rajouri, Jammu and Kashmir states of India, respectively.

Similarly, in Paphos and Larnaca countryside of Cyprus, Athena et al. (2006) reported 78 species of edible wild food plants as being consumed by the local community. Termote et al. (2008) also documented a total of 71 wild edible plant species belonging to 38 families and 60 genera as being consumed by the Turumbu people of Tshopo district in DR Congo.

Relationship between sex, age and knowledge of WSWFPs: The findings from this study suggested that the knowledge of WSWFPs increased with age of the respondents, impliying that the younger generation have somewhat little local knowledge of WSWFPs than the elderly people. This could be attributed first to the low interest of the younger generation to learn more about WSWFPs and secondly, to more time spent at school because of the introduced universal primary and secondary education in Uganda that dictates compulsory enrolment of the younger people to schools hence they have little time to interact with their families and the environment to learn more about the WSWFP resources.

A case study by Ladio and Lozada (2004) among the Mapuche community of northwestern Patagonia also showed that the knowledge of WSWFPs increased with age of the respondents. Elsewhere, age of the respondents has also been shown to be a defining feature of the level of plant-based knowledge and a powerful indicator of the process of ethnobotanical decline over time (Voeks, 2007). Although, the findings from regression analysis suggest that knowledge of WSWFPs possessed by both men and women grows during their lifetimes, it was also apparent that women amass this knowledge more quickly throughout their life-times than men. Irrespective of their ages, women on average knew and reported more WSWFPs than their male counterparts. Luoga also found that women in eastern Tanzania knew more about herbaceous plants than men.

In Northeast Thailand, women were reported to have more knowledge about wild food plants because they are gatherers (Price, 2003; Somnasang et al., 1998). Northeast Thai women and girls are also said to be more likely to identify correctly wild food plants than men and boys (Somnasang, 1996). During the Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) gathering of WSWFPs were reported to be the main work of the women and girls and as such they would tend to interact more with their natural environment and hence, know many different kinds of WSWFPs. Women also tend to learn at an early age before they get married how to find and use WSWFPs. Their teachers are usually their mothers, grandmothers and fellow village women.

Main parts of WSWFPs consumed and consumption patterns: Fresh leaves and shoots and fruits were the most reported plant parts consumed by households in the study area. The preference of fresh leaves and shoots to other plant parts could be due to the fact that they are frequently harvested in relatively large quantity, prepared and eaten often by the entire household members. Meanwhile, the preference for fruits to other plant parts could be attributed mainly to their consumption pattern. Most fruits are often eaten raw as snacks for instance between meals while collecting firewood or herding. Elsewhere, Reddy et al. (2007) also reported leaves and fruits as the predominantly consumed parts of the WSWFPs collected by indigenous people in Andhra Pradesh state of India. Termote et al. (2008) in their ethnobotanical research on the use and socio-economic value of wild edible plants by the Turumbu people of Tshopo district in DR Congo reported a higher preference of fruits and leaves to other plant parts.

In the present study, WSWFPs were largely consumed as the main sauce and side dishes after cooking, raw as a snack and as condiments (spices) or appetizers. Consumption of these plants as wine and porridge component, juice (beverages), raw in salads, potash salt in other foods and as relishes were infrequent. Similar pattern of consumption of WSWFPs were also reported by Athena et al. (2006) and Dogan et al. (2004) in Western and Central Anatolia (Turkey) and Paphos and Larnaca countryside of Cyprus, respectively. The current consumption of WSWFPs as main meal (sauce) in Bunyoro-Kitara kingdom reflects the growing importance of these plants in the household diet of the people. This pattern of consumption was uncommon in the past (Bukenya-Ziraba, 1996) because these WSWFPs were consumed mainly as side dishes or as snacks. But due to recent food crisis caused by recurrent cycles of drought leading to failure of conventional foods crops in this kingdom as in most part of Uganda, many households have switched to consuming WSWFPs as main sauce (meal). One respondent had this to say, researcher had never depended on wild food plants as main meal but because of the severe food shortage due to the yearly droughts, researchers now eat wild foods as the main meal. It is a shame to him but at least he is not alone.

Main consumers and gatherers of WSWFPs in the kingdom: Earlier reports (Goode, 1989) opined women, elderly people and children as the main consumers of the WSWFPs in Uganda. In contrast, the present study indicates that the WSWFPs are now largely being consumed by entire household members-a practice that underscores the importance of these plants in household diet. This shift from women and children as the main consumers of WSWFPs in past to the entire household members today is perhaps due to the frequent severe food shortages being experience in most part of kingdom where by the little that is harvested from the wild is shared by the whole household members.

It could also be due to the ever-rising food prices in the market beyond the purchasing power of a poor household, leaving them with little choice but to rely on WSWFPs. In the study area, WSWFPs were gathered almost exclusively by women and children. It is only in rare cases such as when herding animals, producing charcoal, looking for construction materials or in search of other off-farm income generating products from nature that men are involved in the collection of WSWFPs (mainly fruits). Collection of other types of WSWFPs is deemed the work of women except in cases where the man is living alone in his house. Even so, some of the men (widowers/bachelors) are reluctant to admit that they gather the leafy WSWFPs by themselves for fear of public disgrace.

When asked, about who gathers the leafy WSWFPs that they cook and eat, they are often quick to point to women well-wishers and relatives who give them a portion of what they have gathered for their own households. Elsewhere, Vainio-Mattila (2000) reported the collection of wild vegetables as the sole responsibility of women and children among the Sambaa community in the Usambara Mountains of Northeastern Tanzania. Similarly, amongst the Dinka (Monjeng) tribe of Northern Bahr el Ghazal in Southern Sudan, collection of WSWFPs is reported to be dominated by women and children (Gullick, 1999). In Northern Ethiopia, Barnett (2001) also notes that the collection of WSWFPs is undertaken by the women and children. Roles of women and children as far as gathering of the WSWFPs is concerned should therefore not be underestimated.

Growth forms and collection niches of the commonly consumed WSWFPs: Most of the commonly harvested WSWFPs reported in this study were herbs and shrubs. Trees, vines (climbers) and graminoid were few. The high reliance on herbaceous and shrubby WSWFPs could perhaps be related to their diversities in the local environment. Most of them were reported to be growing on-farms as weeds and therefore are easily encountered by the gatherers especially when going about with the routine farm activities.

This finding concurs with Rashid et al. (2008) who noted that the Gujjar tribe of Rajouri in Jammu and Kashmir state of India make use of mostly wild herbs for food followed by trees, shrubs and climbers in descending order. According to Wehmeyer et al. (1969) and Wehmeyer and Rose (1983), the preference of wild herbaceous edible plants by local communities to other growth forms could be related to their highly perceived nutrient and vitamin values. The present finding, revealed that WSWFPs are collected from a variety of habitats including the forests gaps and margins, grasslands, bushlands (woodlands), wetlands, roadsides (footpaths) and around kraals (animal enclosures) mainly by women and children while going about other chores like searching for firewood and fetching water from the village wells.

Other WSWFPs, especially those that are weedy in nature were gathered mainly from homegardens, cultivated or abandoned farmlands, wastelands and farm borders. This is in agreement with Heywood (1999) and Agea et al. (2007) who noted that non-cultivated plants grow spontaneously in self-maintaining populations in many natural and semi-natural ecosystems and that they can even exist independently of human action. Elsewhere, Reddy et al. (2007) reported that wild food plants in Andhra Pradesh state of India are often gathered by women from the forests and along the way to forests. Vainio-Mattila (2000) also found that wild green leafy vegetables consumed by the Sambaa people in Tanzania, most of which were ruderal and weedy were growing by the roadsides and on arable land. In addition, Woodcock (1995) indicated that in Eastern Usambara of Tanzania, wild food plants were collected by village communities from forests, bushlands, secondary forests and fallow shambas. Similarly, Wilken (1970) reported that farmers in Mexico who sell their domesticated produce, rely on wild food plants foraged from disturbed environments for their own survival.

CONCLUSION

About 62 WSWFPs belonging to 31 botanical families were reported as being consumed in the study area. The most frequently mentioned plants were Amaranthus dubius Mart. ex Thell, Amaranthus spinosus L, Tamarindus indica L, Hibiscus sabdariffa L and Vitex doniana sweet. But in terms of botanical family, members of Solanaceae and Fabaceae families were the most commonly consumed followed by Amaranthaceace, Malvaceae and Asteraceae families, respectively.

Local knowledge of WSWFPs increases with the age of the respondents. Younger people have less knowledge of WSWFPs than their elderly counterparts. Irrespective of their ages, women on average knew and reported more WSWFPs than their male counterparts. Fresh leaves and shoots and fruits were the most predominantly consumed plant parts in the study area. Most WSWFPs were largely consumed as the main sauce and side dishes after cooking, raw as snacks and as condiments (spices or appetizers). Their consumption as wine and porridge component, beverages, raw in salads, potash salts in other foods and as relishes were infrequent. WSWFPs were found almost exclusively consumed by entire household members. Women and children were found to be the primary gatherers. Men only occasionally collected wild fruits. Most gathered WSWFPs were collected from a variety of habitats including the forests gaps and margins, grasslands, woodlands, wetlands, roadsides, around kraals, homegardens, cultivated or abandoned farmlands, wastelands and farm borders. The gathered WSWFPs were predominantly herbs and shrubs. Trees, vines (climbers) and graminoids were few.

RECOMMENDATION

In light of the findings and conclusions above there is an urgent need for research on the possibility of adapting, growing and intentionally managing some of the commonly consumed WSWFPs (e.g., Hibiscus acetosella and Hyptis spicigera) since a large proportion of these plants were reportedly gathered from out-of-farm niches.

How to cite this article:

John Hall, Zewge Teklehaimanot, James Munga Kimondo, Joseph Obua, Refaat Atalla Ahmed Abohassan, Clement Akais Okia and Jacob Godfrey Agea. Wild and Semi-Wild Food Plants of Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom of Uganda:Growth Forms, Collection Niches, Parts Consumed, Consumption Patterns, Main Gatherers and Consumers.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.36478/erj.2011.74.86
URL: https://www.makhillpublications.co/view-article/1994-5396/erj.2011.74.86